Jeremy Stover EARLY HISTORY The earliest inhabitants of Algeria were cattle herders and hunters living in the Al Hajjar region between 8,000 and 2,000BC. These may have been the tribal Berbers. The first Algerian kingdom was established by the Berber chieftain Massinissa during the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage sometime in the 3rd or 2nd centuries BC. Massinissa reigned over his kingdom from 202-148BC and his dynasty lasted until 106BC when his grandson Jugurtha became a Roman client. With the decline of the Roman Empire, and the spread of Islam, Roman armies withdrew from Algeria in the 3rd century AD. The Arab conquest of North Africa during the 7th century thwarted the expansion of Byzantium and permanently changed the character of North Africa. Algerians quickly embraced Islam and, in the 8th century, formed their own Islamic government. Algeria became part of the Berber empires of the Almoravids and the Almohads. THE RISE AND FALL OF PIRACY The demise of the Almohad empire created a power vacuum which led to the rise of piracy along what became known as the Barbary Coast. North African piracy compelled the Spanish to occupy and blockade several ports, one of these being Algiers which was also forced to pay a tribute. This Christian occupation of North African ports forced Muslims to seek help from the Ottoman Khalif. In response the Khalif sent a naval fleet which drove the Spanish out of most of the ports that they were occupying. In 1815 a U.S. naval squadron under Captain Stephen Decatur attacked Algiers and forced its governor to sign a treaty banning piracy against U.S. ships. In 1816 the British and Dutch combined their forces against the Algerian fleet and almost totally destroyed it. In 1830 the French army invaded Algiers and the French occupation of Algeria continued for 132 years. FRENCH COLONIZATION Algeria was annexed to France despite intense popular resistance. The French introduced measures to modernize Algeria, and they exploited the country's agricultural resources for the benefits of France. The Algerian nationalist movement emerged between the two World Wars, first simply demanding civil rights for the indigenous peoples of Algeria. In the aftermath of World War II the French government revived attempts to bring Muslim Algerians into the decision-making process but these were too little too late to offset the deep-rooted colonial attitudes and a growing mutual hatred between the French and their Muslin subjects. By the 1950's revolutionaries were being hounded into exile or hiding and the stage was being set for the Algerian War for Independence. In March 1954 a revolutionary committee was formed in Egypt by Ahmed Ben Bella and eight other Algerians in exile. They became the nucleus for the National Liberation Front (FLN). On November 1st of the same year the FLN declared war on the French. The populist war paralyzed the country and forced the French to send 400,000 troops to try and put down the revolt. The cruelty and brutality of the French turned the world opinion against the French. In 1958 colonials and French army officers joined forces to bring down the French and demanded the return of General Charles De Gaulle. De Gaulles move was seen as a betrayal by the colonials, the extreme right wing, and certain parts of the military. In March 1962 a cease fire was negotiated between the French government and the FLN and De Gaulle's referendum was held in July. The Algerian people spoke in a single voice. They voted for independence. AFTER INDEPENDENCE The Evian Accords were signed in 1962. They gave Algeria independence and French aid to help the country. Ahmed Ben Bella was elected the first president of Algeria in 1962. The country he presided over had been established as an Arabic-Islamic socialist state, with a single party system. The FLN being the only legal party. In 1965 Defense minister Houari Boumedienne staged a bloody coup which removed Ben Bella from power. He formed a 26-member Council of Revolution which became the country's highest governmental power, with his army replacing the FLN as the overriding political influence. Boumedienne died in 1978. When his chosen successor, Colonel Chadli Benjedid, was elected he made a genuine attempt to solve some of his country's problems. In 1980 he released Ben Bella from house arrest. The government's one party rule fed a fundamentalist backlash that gave way to widespread rioting in 1985. Islamic leaders branded the government as a 'band of atheist' and called for a return to an Islamic government. Benjedid responded by initiating a program of reforms. However, his moves were too little too late. In October1988 Algeria exploded into riots again. In response a new constitution was written. Even though this new constitution was rigged for the FLN, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won the elections in 1990. The goal of the FIS was to establish an Islamic state in Algeria. Algerians embraced their doctrines and led the party to a stunning first round win over the FLN in December 1991. With the prospect of FIS control, the military elite forced Benjedid to resign and halted the elections. A High Committee was established with Mohammed Boudiaff named as president. Internal terrorism, along with governmental reprisals, has taken an estimated 30,000 lives. Terrorism against foreigners further isolated Algeria from the rest of the world. Boudiaff was assassinated in June 1992, and he was replaced by Ali Kafi. Kafi was replaced by a 5-member council. In 1994 the Council named Algeria's defense minister Liamine Zeroual as interim president of Algeria for a 3-year term. In 1994 the government met with five opposition groups to negotiate a peace settlement. Negotiations continued in Italy, and led to elections in 1995.