Aristotle
and John Wesley:
On Being Truly Human
Cami Koepke
Many ideas presented by John Wesley are similar
to those presented by Aristotle. These similarities become apparent in
various areas, especially in the idea that each person has potential that
can be actualized. Because these similarities are apparent, the thoughts of
Aristotle can easily be employed to assist in understanding many of Wesley's
thoughts. Specifically, the discussion of virtue presented in Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics can assist one in understanding Wesley's ideas of
affections and tempers, the process of Christian perfection, means of grace,
and the importance of community.
Aristotle
Before moving on to discuss the similarities
between the thought of John Wesley and of Aristotle, it is essential to
understand many basic Aristotelian concepts. Prevalent in many of his
works, Aristotle discusses how objects can change. In the Metaphysics
and On the Soul, Aristotle presents his idea of the four causes,
including material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause
(Robinson: 15-22). Employing the illustration of a potter molding a clay
mug, the material cause is the clay, the basic matter that is the subject of
the change. As the clay undergoes the process of being molded, it is being
made into a specific shape that has specific functions. This shape and
function is called the form or formal cause of the object. In this case,
the clay is changing into the form of a mug that is purposed to hold
liquids. It should be noted that material is never without form. Before
the clay was changed into the form of a mug, it was in the form of a lump of
clay that has its own specified function. Each time matter undergoes change
there is an agent responsible for the process. The agent is the efficient
cause. In this case, the potter is responsible for transforming the clay
matter into the mug form. The final cause, or the end, occurs when the
matter is made into a particular form. Although every object has many
intermediate ends, all these ends lead to a single ultimate end. The mug,
for instance, can be used as a paperweight or as a decoration, but the
ultimate end that is suitable for the mug form is to be an object that holds
liquid. The process of an object functioning appropriately to its form,
which is the actualization of its potential, is aimed at attaining this
ultimate end.
Understanding the idea of the four causes is
essential in understanding Aristotle's thought on the human form. In
Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle briefly discusses three types of souls:
the nutritive soul found in plants which is responsible for the basic
functions of the body, the appetitive soul found in all animals which is
responsible for sense-perception, and the rational soul, unique to humans,
which is responsible for the ability to reason. Although humans share the
nutritive and appetitive functions with plants and animals, the ability of
reason is unique to humanity. Aristotle explains that understanding the
uniqueness of the human soul helps to further understand the function of a
human (Aristotle: 1097b30-1098a4). Robinson comments on this saying that
the distinguishing characteristics of the human soul are “cognitive powers
in reasoning, constructing sciences, deliberating courses of action, and
communicating with other human beings . . .And this definition states both
the form of human being and nature of human being" (Robinson: 27). The
human form is to be a reasonable being expressing excellent actions.
Functioning in a way appropriate to the human form is the ultimate end for
people.
Before moving further, it is necessary to
explain Aristotle's idea of virtue. In the interest of this paper, the
explanation will mention intellectual virtue, but virtue of character will
be the primary focus. Virtue is commonly understood as correct feelings and
acting correctly according to the situation. Aristotle insists that virtue
is more than this, saying it is "neither feelings nor capacities," but
rather dispositions (Aristotle: 1106a11-12). A virtuous disposition or
character is attained when a material thing functions according to its form,
and in the case of a human it is "the state that makes a human being good
and makes him perform his function well" (1106a23-25). As mentioned above,
the function of a human is to be a reasonable being excellently expressing
actions. It follows, then, that a virtuous person, or a human qua human, is
one who properly trains and utilizes the power of reason and then guides his
actions accordingly.
Aristotle distinguishes between two parts of
the human soul: intellect, which is the rational part and, character, which
is the non-rational part. The rational part of the soul guides and
persuades the non-rational part towards becoming virtuous and expressing
this virtue through actions. Aristotle divides virtue into two categories:
virtues of intellect, which includes wisdom, comprehension, and
intelligence, and, virtues of character, which includes generosity,
temperance, and courage. Aristotle clearly states that neither virtues of
intellect nor virtues of character arise naturally, “Virtue of thought
arises and grows mostly from teaching, hence needs experience and time"
(1103a15) and "it is also clear that none of the virtues of character arise
in us naturally" (1103a19). Aristotle writes that once humans direct the
intellect toward the end of a virtuous state, the intellect will be able to
persuade the character and therefore govern the actions expressed by the
soul.
The intellect is used to form a virtuous
character, which is expressed through both feelings and actions. According
to Aristotle's definition of 'character,' it is not enough only to
sporadically do good actions; rather, he insists that the very nature or
temperament of a person must be characterized by virtue. Just as an
instrumentalist through rigorous practice develops into a good musician,
Aristotle writes that a virtuous character is achieved through the
repetition or the habituation of good actions. Humans become what ever they
do repeatedly. If one concentrates on doing actions that express virtue,
the person's character will eventually become virtuous. This process is
described as forming the habit of virtue.
People are not generally accustomed to pursuing
functions appropriate to the human form. Pursuing what they desire, and it
takes great effort for people to pursue virtue if they do not love that
which expresses virtue. However, once people are actively engaged in the
process of actualizing a virtuous character they will learn to love and find
pleasure in what is virtuous or ‘good’ and will therefore seek after what is
good. Burnyeat explains this idea saying,
The character of one's pleasure depends on
what is enjoyed, and what the virtuous man enjoys is quite different from
what the non-virtuous enjoy; which is not to say that the enjoyment is not
as intense, only that it is as different as the things enjoyed. What the
virtuous man enjoys . . . is the actions which the practice of the virtues
requires could only be enjoyed if they are seen as noble and virtuous
and the agent delights in his achievement of something fine and noble. (77)
The pattern of
habituating virtue that Aristotle lays out appears to be: learning what
actions express virtue are, doing these good actions and developing a
virtuous character, and finally, allowing the virtuous character to be
expressed through good actions that the person has learned to desire.
What
exactly are actions that express virtue? Aristotle devotes many pages of
Nicomachean Ethics to explain the virtues of character, which deal with
feelings, social life, and external goods. He explains that an action
expressing virtue is a mean between two extremes that is determined
according to the person and the situation, "But relative to us the
intermediate is what is neither superfluous nor deficient; this is not one,
and is not the same for everyone" (Aristotle: 1106a31-32). For instance, in
dealing with external goods, generosity is the mean between deficiency of
generosity and wastefulness. Other actions expressing virtue that are the
means between two extremes include mildness, truthfulness, friendliness,
justice, and honor.
The mean action is different in every situation. For instance, mildness,
the mean between irascibility-too much anger and inirascibility-not enough
anger, is determined according to the circumstances. Aristotle writes, "The
person who is angry at the right things and towards the right people, and
also in the right way, at the right time and for the right length of time,
is praised" (1126a31-34). The mean depends on the situation. A situation
in which one's family gets murdered requires a different level of anger
response than a scenario in which on gets cut off in traffic.
Some actions are not considered to have a mean
since they are purely base, including adultery, theft, and murder.
Aristotle writes, "in doing these things we can never be correct, but must
invariable be in error" (1107a14). Since the means used to arrive at a
certain end cannot contradict the end, people who are in the process of
forming a virtuous character must avoid these base actions that are
antithetical to expressing virtue.
There are
several ways for humans to learn to recognize and understand virtuous
actions. Because "in general what expresses virtue pleases the lover of
virtue," (1099a11) one can know what virtue is by observing a person who has
actualized a character of virtue. Before one can identify expressions of
virtue, one must be educated to understand virtue. This is done through
moral education and through friends. Educating children in both knowledge of
the good and in practicing the good is vital in teaching them to pursue
virtue. Because young people have a tendency of avoiding what is good,
moral education should be legislated that instructs young people on how to
act out their knowledge of the good. This education should continue
throughout their lifetime. Aristotle writes, "it is not enough to correct
the upbringing and attention when they are young; rather, they must continue
the same practices and be habituated to them when they become men"
(1180a4-6). Also, friends can assist in recognizing what is virtuous.
Aristotle says, "We are able to observe our neighbors more than ourselves,
and to observe their actions more than our own" (1169b34-35). Friends are
useful both to exemplify virtuous actions as well as to correct one's
actions towards exemplifying virtue.
Summarizing
the ideas presented above, Aristotle believes that a human qua human is a
being who is actualizing a character that excellently expresses functions
appropriate to the human form. What a person loves and how a person
habitually acts over a long period of time can identify whether a person is
a true human being. Aristotle insists that not all people are in the
process of actualizing what it means to be truly human. Individuals who
love base things and pursue a life of immediate gratification "appear
completely slavish, since the life they decide on is a life for grazing
animals" (1095b19, 20). People who are not seeking to actualize their
potential as virtuous beings are functioning as something other than as a
human. Aristotle writes, "We are in so far as we are actualized, since we
are in so far as we live and act" (1168a7-8). For some, the final cause
they are seeking is no better than the form of the appetitive soul. The
defining essence of human qua human is goodness, "as far as its substance
and the account stating its essence are concerned, virtue is a mean; but as
far as the best [condition] and the good [result] are concerned, it is an
extremity" (1107a6). People are purposed to fulfill their function as being
human; and it is impossible to actualize too much of this virtuous state.
Aristotle insists that people are the agent
responsible for actualizing their own potential. The product is the
producer in actualizing the form. This change is accomplished when an agent
habitually chooses to do good things in order to establish a virtuous
character. Once a virtuous character is established the person continues to
actualize a virtuous character by doing good actions. Virtue is a state
that continually expresses virtue through good activity. This virtuous
state is defined as happiness: "happiness is an activity of the soul
expressing complete virtue" (1102a5). According to Aristotle, the ultimate
goal of all people should be to actualize the potential to be truly human.
John Wesley
Throughout his works, Wesley also exemplifies
the idea that people have the potential to actualize a particular form.
Wesley explains that the function of a human is to act in ways that express
holiness; and the ultimate end of a human is to actualize ‘Christian
perfection’ which is essentially a life characterized by holiness. The
realization of a holy character, signified by loving God and loving one’s
neighbor, is the final and ultimate end for all humans. Although all
people, by means of prevenient grace, are born with the potential to realize
this final end, Wesley writes that the process of realizing this form
requires people to respond to the grace that God extends. All people have
the ability to actualize full humanity characterized by love, but each human
must react to God in order for this to happen.
Similar to Aristotle's idea of the soul, Wesley
proposes what he also calls the soul or the heart that contains both
intellect and affections. In Wesley's NT Notes on Luke 10:27, he
says
Perhaps the heart, which is a general
expression, may be explained by the three following. With all thy
soul, with the warmest affection; with all they strength, the most
vigorous efforts of thy will; and with all thy mind, or understanding; in
the most wise and reasonable manner thou canst, thy understanding guiding
thy will and affections. (quoted in Clapper: 51)
Wesley presents the
heart as containing a person's affections, will, and mind or understanding.
In this quote, Wesley seems to distinguish between will and affections.
However, Maddox explains, "Wesley was not using "will" to designate the
human faculty of rational self-determination, as is typical in current
usage; rather, he equated the will with the affections" (Maddox 1994: 69).
Wesley believes that people have the freedom to develop their affections /
will as they please. Humans chose to turn their desires toward good or to
be inclined toward what is not good.
Wesley explains that people are defined by the
affections of their heart. Affections determine what people love and seek,
and what drives their actions. Affections are the motivating disposition
that guides actions. For instance, if one's affections are focused on the
love of power, then all of that person's feelings and actions will be
centered around attaining power. Like Aristotle, Wesley believes that what
people desire will determine their actions.
The intellect or mind, which is distinct from
the affections, does not act to suppress or subordinate the affections;
rather, like Aristotle's idea of the character being guided by the
intellect, the mind seeks excellence of understanding in order to properly
guide the affections. Wesley describes a synergistic relationship between
understanding and affections. Although the two are separate, Wesley does
not make a strong distinction between them, believing that they are mutually
influential. Maddox explains affections and its relationship with reason:
To begin with, they are not simply
"feelings," they are indispensable motivating inclinations behind all human
action. On the other hand, they are neither mere intellectual assent nor
blind attraction; rather, in their ideal expression, the affections
integrate the rational and emotional dimensions of human life into a
holistic inclination toward particular choices or acts. (Maddox 1996: 5)
In Wesley's O.T.
Notes on the Ten Commandments, he says that the heart of a person is to
be focused on "whatever leads to the knowledge and love of God" (Clapper:
35).
A person seeks understanding for the purpose of leading the affections in
the right direction and the affections in turn can enlighten the person's
understanding.
Similar to Aristotle's list of virtues, Wesley
also gives a list of activities that express holiness or 'fruit of the
spirit,’ including gratitude, faith, hope, fear, joy, temperance, peace, and
love (Wesley: accessed 2002).
Most notably, all these virtues can be expressed through 'works of mercy,'
such as assisting one's neighbor or practicing acts of self-denial (Maddox
1994: 215-216). These actions, as articulated by Wesley, seem to be means
between two extremes. In reference to the practice of self-denial, he
comments that in fasting people should avoid the extremes of deprivation and
self-indulgence. However, it is noted that love has no mean and can never
be done enough.
In opposition to love, Wesley lists affections that are to be avoided
altogether, such as intemperance, envy, despair, pride, and anger (Clapper:
88).
Like Aristotle's belief that a virtuous
character is affected by habituating actions that exemplify good, Wesley
also insists that good or holy affections must be habituated. Wesley calls
these habituated affections 'tempers' (Maddox 1996: 5). Although tempers
are not transitory, they are able to be changed. Good actions do not
necessarily signify a person who has actualized a state of holiness, but
repeated effort to engage in good acts will eventually result in changing
the nature of one's tempers. Once a person's tempers are transformed, the
orientation towards what is holy will result in actions that are good.
Wesley insists that the main example of an enduring temper is love of God
and love of people, "From the true love of God and [other humans] directly
flows every Christian grace, every holy and happy temper. And from these
springs uniform holiness of conversation" (quoted Maddox 1996: 5).
The telos or ultimate end of humanity,
according to Wesley, is actualizing holiness that Wesley calls Christian
perfection or entire sanctification. Living life in pursuit of Christian
perfection is the function appropriate to the human form. Christian
perfection is realized when a person's character is transformed into a
character of holiness; the transformation results in the person loving and
seeking after what is good. The realization of holiness is not
instantaneous, but it is the final end of the process of habituating one's
tempers towards holiness. Wesley writes that the attainment of this state
is exemplified as "the humble, gentle, patient love of God, and our
neighbor, ruling our tempers, words, and actions" (Maddox 1996: 8). The
human form is distinguished by love. People are supposed to develop their
tempers and affections in light of this form in order to be truly human.
According to Wesley, although humans are not born already having actualized
a character of holiness, through prevenient grace God has instilled within
each person the potential to attain a loving character.
Wesley, like Aristotle, insists on the
importance of community. A holy state cannot be actualized in isolation.
In the church community people can participate in means of grace, such as
the Eucharist and baptism. Also, it is immensely important to meet with
other people to support one another in responsible participation in the
grace extended by God and for furthering understanding of holiness.
Within the church community, people transform their characters and are
therefore able to express love actively to those outside the church.
Conclusion
The similarities between Aristotle and Wesley
are readily apparent. Both thinkers suggest that there is a difference
between simply living life and being a true human being. They also both
suggest that it is possible for people to undergo dramatic change in what
they love, and they can learn to redirect their actions towards that which
is virtuous or good. Both also state that this change is more than changing
outward actions; rather, the change is concerned with changing the character
of a person and therefore changing all actions that flow from the person.
Aristotle makes it extremely clear that the process of changing one's
character is difficult and takes time. Wesley also promotes the idea that
change is not dramatic and instantaneous. Through his own experience Wesley
realized that adopting holy affections and rooting out bad affections or
'sin' is a long process.
The thought of Aristotle and Wesley, however,
does not always coincide. In particular, they differ in their view of who
is the agent responsible for the change. Both admit that humans are born
'depraved' in that they are not born with a fully actualized virtuous or
holy character. Rather, the potential to be fully human has to be nurtured
in order for it to be actualized. As discussed above, Aristotle insists
that people are both the subject and the sole agent of change. Education
and community do assist one in recognizing the good, but the individual
alone executes the change of character. In Wesley's model of change, people
are still agents in their own change; but, Wesley incessantly notes that God
is the agent who initiates the change. God is empowering humans to realize
their potential to be characterized by love, but in order for the
realization of holiness to be actualized, humans must respond to God's
empowerment. Maddox explains, "Involved here would be both an awakening of
the affections in response to the affect of God's gracious empowering
Presence, and a shaping of those affections into holy dispositions
(tempers)" (Maddox 1996: 7). Beyond prevenient grace, God extends grace to
humans through 'means of grace' in which Wesley describes the Holy Spirit as
the efficient cause or agent that extends the grace (Maddox 1994: 193). The
means of grace, including such things as the Eucharist, corporate worship,
private spiritual exercises, and works of mercy are purposed both to be
exercises that allow one to practice acts of love and to be opportunities
for God to convey character-changing grace. Means of grace are
opportunities for synergistic work between God and humans to bring about
genuine change in people's character.
Wesley states that the goal of humanity is for
acts of love to flow from a heart of love. Aristotle's ideas of human
character, change, potentiality, and actualization can assist in helping to
understand Wesley's thoughts on the affections and tempers, means of grace,
and Christian perfection. Aristotle and Wesley both desire that humans
fulfill their potential to be truly human. For Wesley, though, humans are
not the sole agents to bring about this change. God, through empowering
grace, makes it possible for all humanity to actualize their potential to
attain holiness.
Notes
Gregory Clapper gives a list of the virtues/affections mentioned in
Wesley's N.T. Notes. p. 85-89.
